With so many advances in technology in recent decades, the use of what a community has available locally has almost become a foreign concept. From food to toys to everyday supplies, it all seems to come from overseas. This has increased the ability to construct and produce at a low cost, but behind the scenes it is eroding our environment. The energy implications brought about by the trend of outsourcing are substantial. Sustainability tends to lead to the discussion of the energy used in terms of the building itself, but not the energy it took to complete the construction of the building. A possible remedy to a part of this energy crisis our world is facing can be found in the application of local sourcing. Local sourcing is the use of material from the surrounding area of the construction site, which limits the amount of energy required to transport the raw materials to the site[1].
Local sourcing is not new in concept. In any traditional building project it would have been common to allocate
all of the necessary materials locally. Some early construction methods that incorporate local sources include wattle and daub and thatch.
Wattle and Daub
Wattle and Daub is one of the early construction methods that incorporates local sourcing. Wattle, or sticks woven together between wooden posts, is covered with daub, which is a material consisting primarily of mud and straw. Other materials commonly used in daub includes aggregate, dung, and lime[2].
Figure 1: "A timber framed building with wattle and daub infill, limewashed in the medieval manner" [4]
This construction material is not very stiff, which allows the structure to last longer because the material can shift or fill spaces when needed. Some buildings constructed using wattle and daub are still standing today after about 700 years. Wattle and daub acts as a good insulator and can be easily repaired unless the material is rotted or overcome by insects. Rotting and insects only occurs if too much water reaches the material or if it is neglected over time. The material can withstand some water because it can evaporate water fairly quickly. Lime can be applied to the daub to increase the material strength, keep water from saturating the material, clean the material to prevent rotting, and repair any small cracks. One of the disadvantages of this method of construction is aesthetics. Wattle and daub can be covered with plaster and painted, but the walls can still look lumpy due to the material characteristics[3]. Figure 1 above is an example of a house made from timber and filled with wattle and daub[4].
Thatch
Thatch is straw or reed used as a roofing material. This method of construction was used before the early settlers came to the United States[5].
Benefits of thatch include cost, ease of repair, insulation, and water resistance for the building itself. Since the material is often readily available in most areas, the cost is much less than that of a modern tile roof. Thatch has a depth of anywhere from one to four feet, depending on how many new layers were added over time. A new layer of thatch is added to the roof when it is repaired. Since the straw or reed is packed so thick, water does not reach very far and therefore does not reach the interior of the house. One of the primary disadvantages of thatch roofing is fire resistance[6].
Although there is no practical way to eliminate the use of foreign goods, it would be beneficial to be conscious of the energy required to transport a material to its final location. Europe has lead the way in an attempt to responsibly source materials and reduce the carbon footprint of the building industry[7][8] . In addition, the higher education community has spearheaded many attempts to construct green, environmentally friendly buildings[9] .
Variations in Local Sourcing
Worldwide, there are many variations to the standardization of local sourcing concepts. Despite the different methods, all of them seek to accomplish the same goal.
LEED
The Leadership in Energy & Environmental Design - US Green Building Council or LEED council has sparked a surge of green building. Many organizations are seeking out LEED certification for their buildings. This entails meeting requirements at various points in construction, and thereby earning points which lead to levels of certification. Many universities have been working hard to gain optimum certification in their newest buildings, partly to portray an image, and partly to help the future of our nation and world[10] .
Environmental Product Declarations
Environmental product declarations (EPD's) are voluntary declarations that provide detailed information on the environmental impact of a product[11] . These documents provide evidence of the conscientious decisions a company or organization is making. Generally these documents use a technique called life-cycle assessment to track the origins of their materials.
Life-Cycle Assessment
Life-cycle assessment uses a "from cradle to grave" method of thinking[12] . In essence, this technique seeks to track a material from its origins all the way to its final resting place. This is an in-depth pursuit, but with the trail of a material's history, it is possible to calculate its energy consumption, which allows an easy identification of the environmental burden caused by any construction project[13] .
BES 6001
BES 6001 is a standard finding its origin in the United Kingdom. It addresses the responsible sourcing of materials by outlining ways to approach the environmental and social impacts of a project[14] . In the UK, the concrete industry is the first to come under the standards set forth by BES 6001. Other industries are looking to comply in the near future[15] .
Industry Applications
With all of the standard methods on how to responsibly source the materials for a construction project, it is helpful to understand how the process of locally sourcing or responsible sourcing occurs for different materials.
Concrete
Concrete is the leading construction material in the European Responsible Sourcing (RS) movement[16] . This entails the supplies needed to produce it. In most cases, building projects are close to some source of water, sand, and aggregate. These materials are abundant in comparison to many other building supplies, so it is logical that concrete production would lead the RS movement. In 2012, 89% of concrete produced in the UK met BES 6001 standards[17] .
Wood
Trees that are taken down to allow for a construction project can be scrapped or sent to a mill or processing plant. However, there are other
Figure 2: Gilasi countertops are made from recycled glass at the Illinois Bell Building [13]
options that would more directly incorporate the material into the building. It is possible (depending on the type of trees in the area) to mill the trees into paneling or use the trees to build cabinets or furniture[18] .
Other Products
Beyond common bulk material, there is also the possibility of using recycled material to produce necessary products. This can be accomplished through many applications. An example of this was provided in the Illinois Bell building where the counter tops were fabricated from recycled glass, shown in Figure 2 on the right[19] .
Financial Considerations
Local sourcing can be very beneficial financially in large construction projects. For instance, the heavier the material, the more it will cost to transport it to the construction site. It is common for the heavier materials to be sourced locally so transportation costs can be minimized[20].
Materials sourced locally may be more expensive than materials sourced globally because of the lack of competition. However, the cost to transport the material to the construction site may balance out the cost differences and potentially be more beneficial in the end since sustainability is becoming increasingly more popular[21].
Balance is key when considering local sourcing in a construction project. It may be more beneficial to only obtain the heavy materials through local sourcing, but obtain the lighter materials globally if the total cost of the material does not outweigh the total cost of the locally sourced material. However, if the goal of the project is to obtain all resources locally, it is important to consider a bigger budget since the prices of the material produced locally may not match the competitive prices of the material produced globally[22].
Responsibly Sourced Buildings
As the popularity of sustainability in building has increased, specific projects are seeing direct affects. Some projects put forth effort to responsibly source materials and others go as far as to make their creation a "green building."
The Gateway Building
Figure 3: The Gateway Building, University of Nottingham [1]
The Gateway Building at the University of Nottingham is a unique example of a construction project that took local sourcing seriously. The big difference that allowed this building to break the mold from the majority of projects out there, was the intentional planning that went into it. From the start, the architects and all those involved knew they wanted to use material that was within a minimal radius of the University, so they designed everything with this in mind. Of course, not every typical building material is available locally, but this process is all about discovering substitutes, which is what the designers (Make Architects) did.
The walls of this building are uniquely constructed with packed straw in between each panel and they are covered with a breathable barrier to allow moisture to escape[23] . This design provides an insulating barrier, replacing the traditional fiberglass or other type of insulation which is much more harmful to the environment longterm. In addition to the straw being a more environmentally friendly product, it was all grown on the campus of the university. University of Nottingham is an agricultural school and they saw this as an opportunity to use their resources to the betterment of the environment[24] .
Figure 4: Locally sourced materials for The Gateway Building [1]
The success of this project provides hope that, with a little bit of intention and planning, the entire building industry can be reworked. Figure 4 to the left gives indication of the sourcing that went into this project. When a project is constructed with materials so close to home, life-cycle assessment becomes much easier and a real perspective on the negative impact of importing so excessively is gained. Follow this link to a video discussing The Gateway Building <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2odmDep4fQQ>
Perot Museum of Nature and Science
Figure 5: Perot Museum of Nature and Science [25]
The Perot Museum of Nature and Science, located in Dallas, Texas and shown above in Figure 5[25] , is a building that was intentionally built to be a living example of sustainability to expand the learning experience from the exhibits. The building was awarded with prestigious sustainability awards, including the rare honor of receiving four Green Globes from the Green Building Initiative since its opening in December 2012. Some of the ways the Perot Museum incorporates sustainable practices includes recycled materials, use of waste products such as slag, rain water and air conditioning condensation storage that is used in an irrigation system and as toilet water, wood from sustainable forests, paint that does not release harmful fumes, and local sourcing[26].
All of the materials on and around the exterior of the building come from areas no more than a few hundred feet from Dallas. The landscape only includes plants that are native to Texas and even includes sections that represent various diverse areas of Texas[27].
Dineen Hall
Figure 6: Dineen Hall [28]
Dineen Hall, shown in Figure 6[28] above, is the new College of Law building at Syracuse University that has incorporated sustainable construction to enhance the learning environment for the students. The building planners aimed to receive sustainability awards for the building's sustainable practices. Some of the these practices include natural lighting and heat, efficient indoor lighting, green roofs, and local sourcing. Dineen Hall used locally sourced timber to construct the building[29]. The sustainable efforts put into the construction of the building has created a calming and inspirational surrounding for the students to study and socialize[30].
U.S. EPA Science and Technology Center
Figure 7: U.S. EPA Science and Technology Center [31]
The U.S. EPA Science and Technology Center (shown above in Figure 7[31] ), built on a brownfield site, received a LEED Gold award for the building's use of sustainable practices. The area around the building encourages sustainable methods of transportation by providing charging areas for electrical cars and bicycle storage in addition to encouraging public transportation. The building itself takes advantage of a drip irrigation system to reduce water usage and includes other sustainable methods such as rain water recovery and distribution, natural lighting, efficient indoor lighting, fume and heat control, local sourcing, and recycling[32].
The building mostly used locally sourced material for construction. Local sourcing, which minimizes excess materials, along with a recycling program helped the environment by keeping a substantial amount of waste from landfills. Specifically, the combination of these two sustainable practices kept 72% of the construction waste from landfills[33].
Recent Research
Local Materials Sourcing in Contemporary Architecture
This report discusses the pros and cons of local sourcing and incorporates a practical point of view from interviewing employees involved in construction[34].
One of the ways local sourcing is beneficial is the attention it gives to the environment. According to a study on Japanese architecture, people are more conscious of the disrupted environment when they use materials that are locally sourced. It is more common for the environment to be restored after a material is taken from it when using locally sourced materials opposed to imported materials. Local sourcing also enhances the local economy and the architecture reflects the community and tends to last longer[35].
Practically, employees working on the job site do not view local sourcing as a more efficient way to construct a building. If there is a material on a job site, it tends to be used or recycled or the workers are told to get rid of it. Those working on a construction project may also be weary to use locally sourced material because they do not trust the supplier. In addition, locally sourced material may be more expensive due to lack of competition and it may take more time[36].
Towards Supply Chain Sustainability: Economic, Environmental, and Social Design and Planning
This report addresses one of the main problems associated with local sourcing: how it is realistically applied. Many project managers do not even want to bother with local sourcing because there hasn't been a significant amount of research conducted that explains how to apply local sourcing efficiently. This report addresses the problem by creating a mathematical programming model, applying an environmental assessment methodology to an optimization model, incorporating a social indicator, and explaining how to apply this information for a project manager. The mathematical programming model attempts to balance the three sections of sustainability, which are social, environmental, and economic, for optimum efficiency. The results from the case study show that costs and environmental impact can be reduced by increasing transportation and decreasing the number of warehouses. To minimize environmental impact, the production should be priority over transportation in terms of making it more efficient and environmentally friendly[37].
Local Sourcing Through Demolition and Deconstruction
Rory Stott discusses some of the sustainability efforts taken by the city of Detroit, Michigan in his article, "The Sustainable Initiatives Deconstructing Detroit." In the article, Stott explains that Detroit has an abundant amount of buildings that are not in use anymore and are needing to be removed. One method to integrate local sourcing into construction is using recycled materials from other buildings. Two initiatives that are being carried out in the city are Recycle Detroit and Reclaim Detroit[38].
Recycle Detroit is an initiative lead by Christopher Siminski that helps the community take advantage of potentially recyclable materials. Siminski created a website/map that communicates to the community where there are buildings that are either neglected and collapsed or torn down but have not been transported to a landfill. The map also specifies the materials that are at each site. This allows for free local sourcing, apart from transportation, and helps remove the building waste in the city[39].
Reclaim Detroit is an initiative that uses deconstruction rather than demolition and can enhance the economy. Materials from buildings that are no longer in use can be reclaimed through deconstruction, which is a more careful way to remove a building or a section of a building because it is taken down one piece at a time as opposed to being torn down. This method enhances the economy by creating jobs and allowing the removed parts to be sold[40].
Cob building is similar to the wattle and daub method, but it uses a combination of clay, sand, and straw that is compressed. Cob building is very beneficial because it is economical and ecological. Since the material is made using local materials that are easily attainable, the cost to build a cob house is very low. In fact, many cob homes cost less than $10,000. Cob works as a good insulator and can even keep a small home warm for days after a it was warmed with a fire. This characteristic of cob is also why it is so ecological. Its insulation abilities minimize the amount of wood needed for a fire every year. Socially, people are skeptical of cob buildings because they are so cheap and are essentially made of mud. However, the idea of cob houses is growing as people see how durable and cost effective they are[41].
^ Glass, J., Achour, N., Parry, T., Nicholson, I. (2011). "The Role of Responsible Sourcing in Creating a Sustainable Construction Supply-Chain." Management and Innovation for a Sustainable Built Environment, AESOP & ENHR, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
Mota, B., Gomes, I.M., Carvalho, A., and Barbosa-Povoa, A.P. (2015). "Towards Supply Chain Sustainability: Economic, Environmental and Social Design and Planning." Journal of Cleaner Production, 105, 14-27.
Background
Table of Contents
all of the necessary materials locally. Some early construction methods that incorporate local sources include wattle and daub and thatch.
Wattle and Daub
Wattle and Daub is one of the early construction methods that incorporates local sourcing. Wattle, or sticks woven together between wooden posts, is covered with daub, which is a material consisting primarily of mud and straw. Other materials commonly used in daub includes aggregate, dung, and lime[2].Thatch
Thatch is straw or reed used as a roofing material. This method of construction was used before the early settlers came to the United States[5].Benefits of thatch include cost, ease of repair, insulation, and water resistance for the building itself. Since the material is often readily available in most areas, the cost is much less than that of a modern tile roof. Thatch has a depth of anywhere from one to four feet, depending on how many new layers were added over time. A new layer of thatch is added to the roof when it is repaired. Since the straw or reed is packed so thick, water does not reach very far and therefore does not reach the interior of the house. One of the primary disadvantages of thatch roofing is fire resistance[6].
Although there is no practical way to eliminate the use of foreign goods, it would be beneficial to be conscious of the energy required to transport a material to its final location. Europe has lead the way in an attempt to responsibly source materials and reduce the carbon footprint of the building industry[7] [8] . In addition, the higher education community has spearheaded many attempts to construct green, environmentally friendly buildings[9] .
Variations in Local Sourcing
Worldwide, there are many variations to the standardization of local sourcing concepts. Despite the different methods, all of them seek to accomplish the same goal.LEED
The Leadership in Energy & Environmental Design - US Green Building Council or LEED council has sparked a surge of green building. Many organizations are seeking out LEED certification for their buildings. This entails meeting requirements at various points in construction, and thereby earning points which lead to levels of certification. Many universities have been working hard to gain optimum certification in their newest buildings, partly to portray an image, and partly to help the future of our nation and world[10] .Environmental Product Declarations
Environmental product declarations (EPD's) are voluntary declarations that provide detailed information on the environmental impact of a product[11] . These documents provide evidence of the conscientious decisions a company or organization is making. Generally these documents use a technique called life-cycle assessment to track the origins of their materials.Life-Cycle Assessment
Life-cycle assessment uses a "from cradle to grave" method of thinking[12] . In essence, this technique seeks to track a material from its origins all the way to its final resting place. This is an in-depth pursuit, but with the trail of a material's history, it is possible to calculate its energy consumption, which allows an easy identification of the environmental burden caused by any construction project[13] .BES 6001
BES 6001 is a standard finding its origin in the United Kingdom. It addresses the responsible sourcing of materials by outlining ways to approach the environmental and social impacts of a project[14] . In the UK, the concrete industry is the first to come under the standards set forth by BES 6001. Other industries are looking to comply in the near future[15] .Industry Applications
With all of the standard methods on how to responsibly source the materials for a construction project, it is helpful to understand how the process of locally sourcing or responsible sourcing occurs for different materials.Concrete
Concrete is the leading construction material in the European Responsible Sourcing (RS) movement[16] . This entails the supplies needed to produce it. In most cases, building projects are close to some source of water, sand, and aggregate. These materials are abundant in comparison to many other building supplies, so it is logical that concrete production would lead the RS movement. In 2012, 89% of concrete produced in the UK met BES 6001 standards[17] .Wood
Trees that are taken down to allow for a construction project can be scrapped or sent to a mill or processing plant. However, there are otherOther Products
Beyond common bulk material, there is also the possibility of using recycled material to produce necessary products. This can be accomplished through many applications. An example of this was provided in the Illinois Bell building where the counter tops were fabricated from recycled glass, shown in Figure 2 on the right[19] .Financial Considerations
Local sourcing can be very beneficial financially in large construction projects. For instance, the heavier the material, the more it will cost to transport it to the construction site. It is common for the heavier materials to be sourced locally so transportation costs can be minimized[20].Materials sourced locally may be more expensive than materials sourced globally because of the lack of competition. However, the cost to transport the material to the construction site may balance out the cost differences and potentially be more beneficial in the end since sustainability is becoming increasingly more popular[21].
Balance is key when considering local sourcing in a construction project. It may be more beneficial to only obtain the heavy materials through local sourcing, but obtain the lighter materials globally if the total cost of the material does not outweigh the total cost of the locally sourced material. However, if the goal of the project is to obtain all resources locally, it is important to consider a bigger budget since the prices of the material produced locally may not match the competitive prices of the material produced globally[22].
Responsibly Sourced Buildings
As the popularity of sustainability in building has increased, specific projects are seeing direct affects. Some projects put forth effort to responsibly source materials and others go as far as to make their creation a "green building."The Gateway Building
The Gateway Building at the University of Nottingham is a unique example of a construction project that took local sourcing seriously. The big difference that allowed this building to break the mold from the majority of projects out there, was the intentional planning that went into it. From the start, the architects and all those involved knew they wanted to use material that was within a minimal radius of the University, so they designed everything with this in mind. Of course, not every typical building material is available locally, but this process is all about discovering substitutes, which is what the designers (Make Architects) did.
The walls of this building are uniquely constructed with packed straw in between each panel and they are covered with a breathable barrier to allow moisture to escape[23] . This design provides an insulating barrier, replacing the traditional fiberglass or other type of insulation which is much more harmful to the environment longterm. In addition to the straw being a more environmentally friendly product, it was all grown on the campus of the university. University of Nottingham is an agricultural school and they saw this as an opportunity to use their resources to the betterment of the environment[24] .
The success of this project provides hope that, with a little bit of intention and planning, the entire building industry can be reworked. Figure 4 to the left gives indication of the sourcing that went into this project. When a project is constructed with materials so close to home, life-cycle assessment becomes much easier and a real perspective on the negative impact of importing so excessively is gained.
Follow this link to a video discussing The Gateway Building <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2odmDep4fQQ>
Perot Museum of Nature and Science
All of the materials on and around the exterior of the building come from areas no more than a few hundred feet from Dallas. The landscape only includes plants that are native to Texas and even includes sections that represent various diverse areas of Texas[27].
Dineen Hall
U.S. EPA Science and Technology Center
The building mostly used locally sourced material for construction. Local sourcing, which minimizes excess materials, along with a recycling program helped the environment by keeping a substantial amount of waste from landfills. Specifically, the combination of these two sustainable practices kept 72% of the construction waste from landfills[33].
Recent Research
Local Materials Sourcing in Contemporary Architecture
This report discusses the pros and cons of local sourcing and incorporates a practical point of view from interviewing employees involved in construction[34].One of the ways local sourcing is beneficial is the attention it gives to the environment. According to a study on Japanese architecture, people are more conscious of the disrupted environment when they use materials that are locally sourced. It is more common for the environment to be restored after a material is taken from it when using locally sourced materials opposed to imported materials. Local sourcing also enhances the local economy and the architecture reflects the community and tends to last longer[35].
Practically, employees working on the job site do not view local sourcing as a more efficient way to construct a building. If there is a material on a job site, it tends to be used or recycled or the workers are told to get rid of it. Those working on a construction project may also be weary to use locally sourced material because they do not trust the supplier. In addition, locally sourced material may be more expensive due to lack of competition and it may take more time[36].
For more information on this report, go to <http://www.colorado.edu/envd/sites/default/files/attached-files/LocalMaterialsContemporaryArchitecture_Hollis.pdf>.
Towards Supply Chain Sustainability: Economic, Environmental, and Social Design and Planning
This report addresses one of the main problems associated with local sourcing: how it is realistically applied. Many project managers do not even want to bother with local sourcing because there hasn't been a significant amount of research conducted that explains how to apply local sourcing efficiently. This report addresses the problem by creating a mathematical programming model, applying an environmental assessment methodology to an optimization model, incorporating a social indicator, and explaining how to apply this information for a project manager. The mathematical programming model attempts to balance the three sections of sustainability, which are social, environmental, and economic, for optimum efficiency. The results from the case study show that costs and environmental impact can be reduced by increasing transportation and decreasing the number of warehouses. To minimize environmental impact, the production should be priority over transportation in terms of making it more efficient and environmentally friendly[37].To view more of the report and results, go to <http://ac.els-cdn.com/S0959652614007719/1-s2.0-S0959652614007719-main.pdf?_tid=0f3f60de-99e7-11e5-b763-00000aab0f6c&acdnat=1449165517_65da8e811e5ac34cc70a2a89a56a15e3>.
Local Sourcing Through Demolition and Deconstruction
Rory Stott discusses some of the sustainability efforts taken by the city of Detroit, Michigan in his article, "The Sustainable Initiatives Deconstructing Detroit." In the article, Stott explains that Detroit has an abundant amount of buildings that are not in use anymore and are needing to be removed. One method to integrate local sourcing into construction is using recycled materials from other buildings. Two initiatives that are being carried out in the city are Recycle Detroit and Reclaim Detroit[38].Recycle Detroit is an initiative lead by Christopher Siminski that helps the community take advantage of potentially recyclable materials. Siminski created a website/map that communicates to the community where there are buildings that are either neglected and collapsed or torn down but have not been transported to a landfill. The map also specifies the materials that are at each site. This allows for free local sourcing, apart from transportation, and helps remove the building waste in the city[39].
Reclaim Detroit is an initiative that uses deconstruction rather than demolition and can enhance the economy. Materials from buildings that are no longer in use can be reclaimed through deconstruction, which is a more careful way to remove a building or a section of a building because it is taken down one piece at a time as opposed to being torn down. This method enhances the economy by creating jobs and allowing the removed parts to be sold[40].
For more information on these initiatives, visit <http://www.archdaily.com/419865/the-sustainable-initiatives-deconstructing-detroit>.
Cob Building
Cob building is similar to the wattle and daub method, but it uses a combination of clay, sand, and straw that is compressed. Cob building is very beneficial because it is economical and ecological. Since the material is made using local materials that are easily attainable, the cost to build a cob house is very low. In fact, many cob homes cost less than $10,000. Cob works as a good insulator and can even keep a small home warm for days after a it was warmed with a fire. This characteristic of cob is also why it is so ecological. Its insulation abilities minimize the amount of wood needed for a fire every year. Socially, people are skeptical of cob buildings because they are so cheap and are essentially made of mud. However, the idea of cob houses is growing as people see how durable and cost effective they are[41].For more information on Modern cob building, visit <http://content.ebscohost.com.research-db.letu.edu/ContentServer.asp?T=P&P=AN&K=90230170&S=R&D=f5h&EbscoContent=dGJyMNLe80SeprE4wtvhOLCmr02ep7NSsqm4SbeWxWXS&ContentCustomer=dGJyMPGqr0mwqrNPuePfgeyx44Dt6fIA>.
Additional Information
For further information on local sourcing and companies pursuing this goal, see:Make Architects - <http://www.makearchitects.com/>
LEED - <http://www.usgbc.org/certification>
BSE 6001 - British Standard 6001
References
Domonell, K. (2013). "Colleges Seek Sustainable Sources for Green Building." University Business, <http://www.universitybusiness.com/article/colleges-seek-sustainable-sources-green-building> (Nov. 29, 2014).
Domonell (see 9).
CSI Staff. (2014). "Sustainable Construction." Cement Sustainability Initiative, <http://www.wbcsdcement.org/index.php/key-issues/sustainability-with-concrete/sustainable-construction> (Dec. 1, 2014).
Klöpffer, W. (1997). "Life Cycle Assessment." Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 4(4), 223-228.
The Concrete Centre Staff. (2012). "BES 6001." The Concrete Centre, <http://www.concretecentre.com/codes_standards/bes_6001.aspx> (Nov. 29, 2014).
The Concrete Centre Staff. (2012). "Responsibly Sourced Concrete." The Concrete Centre, <http://www.concretecentre.com/sustainability/responsibly_sourced_concrete.aspx> (Nov. 28, 2014).
Morton, J. (2013). "Regional Materials: Benefits and Advantages." Buildings, <http://www.buildings.com/article-details/articleid/15165/page/2.aspx?title=regional%20materials:%20%20benefits%20and%20advantages> (Nov. 29, 2014).
University of Chicago Staff. (2014). "Locally Sources Material." The Science of Sustainability, <https://www.lib.uchicago.edu/e/webexhibits/sustainability/locallysourced.html> (Nov. 29, 2014).
Morton, J. (2013). "Regional Materials: Benefits and Advantages." Buildings, <http://www.buildings.com/article-details/articleid/15165/title/regional-materials-benefits-and-advantages/viewall/true.aspx> (Dec. 1, 2015).
Morton (see 20).
Morton (see 20).
Griffiths, A. (2011). "University of Nottingham Gateway Building by Make." de zeen Magazine, <http://www.dezeen.com/2011/11/10/university-of-nottingham-gateway-building-by-make/> (Nov. 30, 2014).
"Perot Museum of Nature and Science." (2012). SMU Daily Campus, <http://www.smudailycampus.com/news/metropolitan/a-peek-inside-the-perot-museum-of-nature-and-science> (Dec. 3, 2015).
Flick (see 26).
Cole, T. (2014). "Dineen Hall." ArchDaily, <http://www.archdaily.com/562370/dineen-hall-at-syracuse-university-college-of-law-gluckman-mayner-architects> (Dec. 2, 2015).
"U.S. EPA Science and Technology Center." (2005). Building Green, <http://www.buildinggreen.com/hpb/overview.cfm?projectid=323> (Dec. 2, 2015).
"U.S." (see 32).
Hollis, R. (2014). "Local Materials Sourcing in Contemporary Architecture." University of Colorado Boulder, <http://www.colorado.edu/envd/sites/default/files/attached-files/LocalMaterialsContemporaryArchitecture_Hollis.pdf> (Dec. 2, 2015).
Hollis (see 34).
Hollis (see 34).
Mota, B., Gomes, I.M., Carvalho, A., and Barbosa-Povoa, A.P. (2015). "Towards Supply Chain Sustainability: Economic, Environmental and Social Design and Planning." Journal of Cleaner Production, 105, 14-27.
Stott, R. (2013). "The Sustainable Initiatives Deconstructing Detroit." ArchDaily, <http://www.archdaily.com/419865/the-sustainable-initiatives-deconstructing-detroit> (Dec. 3, 2015).
Stott (see 38).
Stott (see 38).
McClellan, C. (2013). "Cob Construction: Build with Earth and Straw." Mother Earth News, 260, 54-59.